|
Issues
Cultural and Social Issues Two main cultural/social issues permeate the literature about distance education in East Asia: DE as a tool for serving a growing population and limited formal higher education openings, and the influence of the Confucian tradition of valuing education and the pressure this value creates on the demand for higher education. Distance Education and the Problem of Limited University Openings China China's 1 billion population resides largely in rural areas (80%), and 23.5% are illiterate or semi-illiterate. Teaching quality and availability is poor in many areas. The effects of the Cultural Revolution still remain. A large number of workers received little education during that period (1966-1976) and are described as "having the 'three lows and one shortage' --- low cultural level, low technological level, low managerial level, and short of professional knowledge" (Xu, 1986). China's tertiary system provides for only a limited number of slots for high school graduates who pass the national qualification exam. In addition, workers (beyond high school) must be elected by their work group to obtain a degree, be released from work, and may attend as full-time, part-time, or spare time students (depending on how they were released from their work group). The work group creates their training plan. China's Radio and TV University (CRTVU) system administers and delivers courses via radio and primarily TV, where students view the courses from work stations in their local/county area. Those who do not have TV cannot view the courses from home. Those who are not near a learning center or are not released from work cannot attend the required viewing and tutorial sessions. Its target students are in-service adults, secondary-school graduates, and young school-leavers waiting to be assigned jobs (unemployed). The remaining students do not take the exam, but study on a self-instructional basis. This group has grown significantly and cannot be totally accommodated for by the TVU system. Hong Kong Hong Kong's history is as a British territory, recently returned to the People's Republic of China in 1997. It is known worldwide for its "business acumen and entrepreneurship…" (Kelly), as a small government model, and a free market economy. After World War II, reconstruction efforts were put into primary and secondary education and teacher training. Expansion of the tertiary system is expected to grow at the rate of 5% per year. Competition for spaces in universities is limited (for example, at the University of Hong Kong, more than 18,000 candidates applies for 1,993 spaces in 1998). Those left out of the system include the backlog of students who qualified, but for which there was no space (or could not afford to go overseas), adults who missed their final year of secondary school (it was only possible after 1978 to complete the last year), and those who desire to further their education but continue working full-time. Those who could not attend locally often were forced overseas, if they could afford it. As of 1991, the Open Learning Institute, the main distance education university in Hong Kong, was still not taking in enough students as expected. Degrees from distance education institutions in Hong Kong are still not recognized as adequate education by the Civil Service. Korea Korea has been transformed from an agricultural society to a newly industrialized society. The aftermath of the war left many people with poor educational qualifications for their jobs. Those with higher levels of abilities were more easily employed and could learn job skills in the workplace. The development of society and increase in those who have acquired formal higher education has caused employers to look at a potential employee's formal education background as a method for determining qualifications. Korean education generally follows a formal educational system (face-to-face, full-time teachers, grouped by age). But the formal system is too rigid and conventional to meet the educational demands by the population and economy. Distance education was conceived as "a new educational avenue for solving the problems in a growing population of secondary school graduates, and in meeting people's needs for lifelong education" (Han) and for the less-privileged. The Korea National Open University (KNOU) and Korea Air and Correspondence University (KACU) were created to meet these needs. Taiwan In contrast to the other East Asia countries, Taiwan's distance education system grew out of a need to provide on-the-job training and to enhance the cultural level of its people, but its entry into this field was later than the other countries (1986) and is still lagging in quality and resources. It focuses primarily on using audio-visual means or giving lectures through electronic media, and the system does not grant degrees. The development of the National Open University of Taiwan has been slow due to a lack of understanding about distance and open education, and possibly because degrees were not initially granted. Confucianism and Education The Confucian cultural heritage of valuing education regardless of socio-economic status permeates China, Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong societies. Chen describes this tradition as focusing on the importance of schooling as an "ideal way of preparing for adulthood…." In conjunction with the high population density and lack of natural resources in Taiwan, and population pressures and growing economies overall, the demand for higher education (and degrees) has put considerable pressure on the limited formal university systems in all countries. In addition, in some countries, like Korea, promotion and professional development depends partially on further degrees or diplomas or short courses taken, which increases the competitiveness to receive further education. There is some concern that this competition has resulted in the end goal of obtaining a degree (or a certificate), not necessarily "higher education."
Political and Economic Issues
China, Hong Kong, Korea and Taiwan have different approaches to the development
of distance education systems. China's is institutionalized, bureaucratic and
top-down and is significantly different from Hong Kong's laissez faire
approach. In both Hong Kong and Taiwan, distance education efforts have
suffered from over-management by government and their agencies. There is also,
a general lack of acceptance of distance education pedagogy. In Korea,
political and economic efforts have been more coordinated. In the last half of
the 20th century, Korea has gone from an agrarian society, poor in natural
resources, to a country ranking 13th in the world economy (Wansang Han, 19??.)
based on their rapid and remarkable growth.
Each may have different political arrangements, but they can agree on the
importance of leveraging, with skillful technologists, the most current and
working tools of the day. Hence, China's (and the World Bank's) heavy
investment in satellite broadcasting (CRTVU) and supercomputing systems and
Korea's use of modern radio and print technologies (KACU).
China
Although there are other efforts, notably the Korea National Open University,
the Korea Air and Correspondence University and the Open Learning Institute of
Hong Kong, distance education in East Asia is primarily an examination of
China's Central Radio and Television University. Conceived and built by the
National People's Congress of China, it is the largest distance education
system in the world. It serves 1.2 billion people and covers an area of 9.6
million square kilometres. With its pervasive satellite system, China has
managed to reach the most far-flung corners of its vast landscape of mountains,
deserts and islands and has wrought significant change on its education system.
"It is expected that, in the 1990's, one out of three university students will
be enrolled in TVU's and millions of non-degree learners will follow TVU
continuing education and vocational training courses." (Zhao Yuhui, 1990.)
By managing the curriculum offered and assuring its quality through the State
Education Commission-sanctioned China Television Teacher College, China has
managed to redress imbalances in many sectors of education such as ratios of
degree to diploma students, increased numbers of management and economics
students and increased access for secondary school graduates to higher
education.
Students enrolled in TVU's enjoy benefits provided by the government. They are
released from any work obligations while receiving full salary and free medical
care. As a part-time student, you are released from work for one to three days
per week while enjoying full pay. TVU graduates are accorded the same status
as graduates of conventional institutions. Even allowing for the payment of
wages, it costs 30% less to graduate a full-time TVU student and 60% less for a
part-time TVU student.
"The Chinese government has attached great importance to the development of the
TVU system. The State Council approved a budget of 50 million Chinese yuan
(equal to about US$ 13.5 million) for the establishment of the CRTVU in 1979,
and a World Bank loan of US$ 40 million for the expansion of the TVU system in
1985." (Zhao Yuhui, 1990.)
In 1985, China started to implement its plans for a satellite system and leased
and purchased satellite transponders from INTELSAT for several pilot projects.
By 1988, there were two Chinese satellites orbiting the earth and the Chinese
government was continuously and increasingly providing satellite space for
distance education. New, bi-directional digital technologies, such as
computer-based information exchange systems, are being developed and evaluated
for use over the satellite system. The satellite systems have been a major
factor in the development of the Chinese education system, especially in remote
rural areas.
Hong Kong
"Hong Kong is known worldwide for its business acumen and entrepreneurship: by
adopting a non-interventionist stance in business affairs, the Government has
allowed a free enterprise system to flourish. With low levels of taxation and
public expenditure and a high level of privat ownership, Hong Kong is a model
of "small government." This non-interventionist approach is not limited to
business and economic concerns. It aslo influences public sector policies and
practices. In areas such as education and social welfare, for instance, control
is often left to, or share with, non-Government agencies.
When it comes to distance education, Hong Kong, despite the efforts of the Open
Learning Institute, suffers from its government's laissez faire economy and
other important and unresolved issues. Issues like; avoiding important
decisions due to ambiguous policy directives, low funding levels for adult
education, restricted access to courses and a lack of a coordinated credit
transfer arrangements amongst the Hong Kong institutions. Credit transfer is
only one of the missing pieces in collaborative efforts between institutions.
Korea
In Korea over the last fifty years, the fields of heavy industry, chemical
manufacturing, advanced and information technologies have received significant
investment attention. As of 1994, Korea's per capita GNP stood at $9,339
billion and the volume of trade amounted to $2,122 billion. Education has
played a vital role in this development and as a result has benefited at all
levels from substantial improvements and expanded opportunities. But, the
school system was not able to keep up with this tremendous expansion and so the
National Open University came into being to solve the problems of increasing
numbers of secondary school graduates and to provide lifelong learning
opportunities for adults in the workforce. In 1994, there were 200,000 students
enrolled at the KNOU, about 15% of the total university population in Korea.
Taiwan
Although Taiwan's government has sanctioned, in University Law and the National
Open University Act, the development of distance and open learning in the form
of the National Open University, it has not provided the funding resources
necessary to operate and staff an institution of this scope, nor the capacity
to grant a significant credential, a degree. Although the NOU can not grant a
degree and operates on a cost-recovery basis, unlike the other national
universities that have been heavily subsidized, it still manages to draw
significant numbers of students.
"According to the NOU Act, NOU is expected to follow all the requirements asked
of any conventional university, in matters such as the degree structure, the
credit system and selective admission of the students. The students will be
conferred all the privileges normally granted to a university graduate, except
a degree, upon completion of their six to seven-year programme." (Shih-Min
Chen, 19??.)
This presents a significant barrier and along with the belief that, "distance
education is home-based, self-instructed and often in the absence of a
teacher, it is widely considered of little pedagogical value", the NOU got off
to a shaky start amidst much skepticism. Nevertheless, the NOU has managed to
survive. The demand for adult lifelong learning is considerable in a country
headed towards industrialism and accounts for the high numbers of applications,
even without granting a degree. If the NOU can display an assured, quality
product comparable with conventional institutions, perhaps the government will
see fit to amend the Act to include the granting of degrees. It would surely
increase the educational appeal of the NOU, drawing more students and
contributing additional tuition funding for the provision of much-needed
faculty. Now, lower-than-expected numbers of admissions and low pass rates
have hobbled acceptance of distance education as a viable alternative to
conventional institutions.
Some Questions for Discussion
1) What, in your opinion, is the most significant contribution of the
Declarations from the
Education for All
conferences in Jomtien and Dakar?
2) How has the broadcasting of educational content by China's Central Radio and
Television University improved the economic conditions of rural Chinese?
3) How could Hong Kong's institutions become more collaborative?
4) Does Korea's rapid growth pose a concern to distance educators in the country?
|
Overviews
Issues
to MDDE614 |